![]() In the present review article, we focus on both compounds, which, from now on are referred to as AMPHs meant “ sensu stricto” to rule out other amphetamine-related compounds. This is exemplified by a few medullary catecholamine neurons, which play a pivotal role compared with the bulk of peripheral sympathetic neurons in sustaining most of the cardiovascular effects induced by AMPHs.Īmphetamine (AMPH) and mostly methamphetamine (METH) are widely abused psychostimulants, which possess a phenylethylamine structure. The mechanistic approach followed here to describe the action of AMPHs within the RF is rooted on the fine anatomy of this region of the brainstem. In this way, a number of reticular nuclei beyond classic DA mesencephalic cells are considered to extend the scenario underlying the neurobiology of AMPHs abuse. Finally, we discuss the conundrum of a mixed neuronal population, which extends from the pons to the periaqueductal gray (PAG). Among these, we also include two pontine cholinergic nuclei. In fact, these nuclei add on DA mesencephalic cells to mediate the effects of AMPHs. Instead, the present review article focuses on catecholamine reticular neurons of the low brainstem. A great amount of investigations, commentary manuscripts and books reported a pivotal role of mesencephalic dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in producing behavioral and neurotoxic effects of AMPHs. In fact, the structural cross-affinity joined with the presence of shared molecular targets between AMPHs and catecholamine provides the basis for a quite selective recruitment of brainstem catecholamine neurons following AMPHs administration. The behavioral and neurotoxic effects of both compounds (from now on defined as AMPHs) stem from a fair molecular and anatomical specificity for catecholamine-containing neurons, which are placed in the brainstem reticular formation (RF). 1Human Anatomy, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, ItalyĪmphetamine (AMPH) and methamphetamine (METH) are widely abused psychostimulants, which produce a variety of psychomotor, autonomic and neurotoxic effects.The effects of mixing amphetamines with other drugs, including alcohol, prescription medications and over-the-counter medicines, are often unpredictable.Michela Ferrucci 1 Fiona Limanaqi 1 Larisa Ryskalin 1 Francesca Biagioni 2 Carla L. Other effects of amphetamine use Taking amphetamines with other drugs psychological problems such as poor memory and concentration.increased strain on the kidneys which can result in kidney failure.high blood pressure and rapid and irregular heartbeat which place stress on the heart and can increase the risk of heart-related complications such as heart attack and heart failure.cracked teeth and other dental problems from clenching the jaw, grinding the teeth, dry mouth and poor hygiene.reduced immunity and increased susceptibility to infections due to not sleeping or eating properly.malnutrition and rapid weight loss due to reduced appetite.Some of the long-term effects of amphetamine use include: feeling restless, irritable and anxious.These effects can last for several days after use and may include: Coming downĪs the effects of amphetamines begin to wear off, a person may experience a range of effects. These symptoms usually disappear a few days after the person stops using amphetamines. High doses and frequent heavy use can also create an “amphetamine psychosis”, characterised by paranoid delusions, hallucinations and bizarre, aggressive or violent behaviour. The effects of a high dose of amphetamines can intensify some of the effects listed in the diagram. ![]() Injecting runs a greater risk of overdose due to large amounts of the drug entering the blood stream and quickly travelling to the brain. Not knowing the strength or purity of amphetamines increases the risk of overdose. This means that a person has taken more amphetamines than their body can cope with.
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